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Some of these questions make sense before you study; others will seem more relevant after you have completed your first assignment or after you have read the earlier sections of Academic Literacy Online. 
1. What is a paraphrase?A paraphrase is the rewriting of an author’s published material in your own words. It is usually applied to a small amount of material, and it follows the construction of the author’s idea quite closely. Essentially, it is a form of reprocessing. Paraphrasing when reading and notemaking is a way of checking that you have really understood the content of what you have read. You also need to be able to paraphrase ideas for inclusion in your assignments. Too many direct quotes are not acceptable in academic writing. Instead you are expected to be able to succinctly paraphrase an author’s ideas for assimilation into your own argument.
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Many courses have specific requirements for layout. Check each course handbook for details and follow instructions exactly. |
Round brackets are used when you are putting an aside or additional explanatory material into your own writing.
In a small study (thirty-two participants) novice piano players were first introduced to major and minor chords.
Square brackets are used within quotations when you need to interrupt the quotation with your own brief clarification of some idea within it.
Langer (1998:24) argues that 'certain myths and fairy tales [especially those containing the Cinderella archetype] help advance a culture by passing on a profound and complex wisdom to succeeding generations'.
Academic writing is like an on-going conversation. Each new book or article (or student essay) is a new voice in this conversation. Each author critically evaluates previous research to gain increased understanding and create new knowledge. Referencing is a way of recording each voice in the conversation so other members can hear it again for themselves. Referencing:
A reference list is a list of all the authors whose work you have actually cited in your essay as in-text references. No other material should be included, even if you have used it in your essay preparation.
A bibliography is a list of all the authors whose work has informed your essay. You can include all background reading here, even if you have not referred to it within the body of your assignment.
Everything that is not common knowledge must be referenced. This includes information from books, journals, newspapers, magazines and the Internet, as well as ideas heard in lectures and seminars (referenced as Personal Communications).
Common knowledge is information that is known by most people in our society. In academic work, it also includes facts within a specific subject area which are very familiar to all those who study that subject. Ideas, opinions and theories must always be referenced.
'Scientists have observed a hole in the ozone layer' does not require a reference. This is a well-known fact that has been repeatedly confirmed.
'The hole in the ozone layer is caused by greenhouse gases' does need a reference because this is a controversial theory, not a well-known fact.
If there is an author on the front cover, reference as you would a book.
If there is no author:
In-text: use title instead of author.
(EDST 529: Justice in Education, Study Guide 1998:32)
In the reference list: use title instead of author at the beginning of the entry.
EDST 529: Justice in Education, Study Guide 1998, University of New England, Armidale, NSW.
There are two ways of doing this.
1. Reference it as a primary source within a secondary source. The author of the idea is the primary source, but you read the idea in your Study Guide which is the secondary source. You use the secondary source as the major part of your reference.
(Fuller 1966:72, quoted in EDST 529: Justice in Education, Study Guide 1998:46)
The page number here refers to the pagination sequence used in the Study Guide itself, not the page numbers that have been photocopied with the article. You only use the secondary source (the Study Guide) in your list of references.
2. If, however, the entire article or chapter is reprinted, with full publication details and preserving the pagination of the actual journal or book, then you can reference it as if you had read it in the original source, making sure the page numbers you cite are those of the original source, not the Study Guide. Cite only the original source in the reference list. Thus in this case you don't have to mention the Study Guide at all.
Internet publishing is open to everyone, so you need to be critical of quality. Don't believe everything you read. Here are some guidelines to help you assess the reliability of the information.
Can you identify an author or an official organisation? (If not, you have no way of easily verifying the validity of the information.)
What are the author's or organisation's credentials? (Does the author have a responsible official position, or is he or she recognised as qualified to give an opinion?)
Are there contact details for the author or organisation? (If not, be suspicious.)
Has the material been printed in a reputable book, journal, magazine or newspaper? (This immediately confirms its reliability, though you should still apply your critical reading skills.)
For a 1,500 word essay, your marker will expect to see at least five references, though a high distinction essay would normally include many more. Referencing only from your course textbook creates a poor impression and will not give a good range of viewpoints or demonstrate your research skills.
Don't take all your sources from the Internet. It looks lazy, and it is no substitute for the wealth of important and reputable resources that are in the library.
Use present tense, when introducing ideas from others.
Maritain (1943:22) argues that love is the foundation of all true education because it calls each student to service within the community.
Use past tense when introducing specific results and conclusions of others.
Clayton's (1998) second study showed that the Read and Review program significantly improved the reading levels of fifty-one students.
Verbs can have two types of voice: active and passive.
Active voice is when the subject of the sentence is the doer of the action:
The principal complimented the teacher.
Passive voice is when the action is done to the subject:
The teacher was complimented by the principal.
Note how the emphasis is changed in each case. In the active voice the focus is on the principal; in the passive voice it is on the teacher.
Passive voice is favoured in science writing because it avoids naming the subject and maintains the appearance of objectivity.
I performed the experiment after the laboratory was disinfected. (active)
The experiment was performed after the laboratory was disinfected. (passive)
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In most academic writing use the active voice because it sounds strong and concise. Too much passive voice sounds wordy, dreary and remote. Computer grammar checks often caution the writer against using the passive voice. This is not necessarily wrong. It depends on your topic, and where you wish to place the emphasis in each sentence. |
Grammar is the knowledge of how words and sentences are constructed to make meaning. It uses terminology such as nouns, verb groups, prepositions, phrases and clauses. Grammar gives you:
You will be expected to teach basic grammar in primary schools. Two books that explain grammar very clearly are:
Dykes, B. 1992, Grammar Made Easy, Hale & Ironmonger, Sydney.
Walker, P. 1996, Pascal's Basic Primary Grammar, Pascal Press, Sydney.
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You'll note that in the previous two questions, a basic knowledge of grammar is needed to fully understand the answers. This demonstrates its importance. Reading either of the books above will give you the background you need to understand these issues, and much, much more. |
